Stolen Children: Uncovering the Legacy of Indian Boarding Schools

Ongoing investigations have confirmed that over 5,073 Indigenous children died while attending government-run Indian boarding schools in the United States and Canada.

Thousands of survivors have shared testimonies of extreme abuse.

"The beatings were regular, and the emotional abuse was constant. We were made to feel worthless and disconnected from our heritage."​
- Beverly Hungry Wolf, Blood Reserve Residential School (Canada)

The tragic legacy of Indian boarding schools in the United States and Canada is finally being brought to light. Recent investigations have exposed the severe mistreatment and alarmingly high mortality rates suffered by Indigenous children who were forced to attend these schools–my family among them. I grew up hearing fragments of stories about these institutions, but most of my relatives who attended passed away when I was young and they never spoke directly or in detail about what they endured. Only in recent years, through awareness efforts by the broader Native American community, have I begun to truly grasp the magnitude of the atrocities committed.

The history of Indian boarding schools in the United States and Canada is a harrowing testament to the lengths to which our national governments have gone to erase Indigenous identities. The scars left behind are deep and enduring, manifesting in the intergenerational trauma that continues to affect Indigenous communities today. The work of healing and reconciliation from this dark chapter in history requires more than just recognition of past wrongs—it demands a commitment to restoring the vibrant cultural practices, languages, and identities that were so violently suppressed.

Let us honor the memories of those who suffered by supporting these ongoing efforts. Let us commit to ensuring that these stories are told and that justice is pursued so that true healing can begin. The legacy of these boarding schools is one of deep pain, but it can become a legacy of resilience and resurgence when Indigenous people are able to fully reclaim and celebrate their heritage in the face of historical injustices.

What follows is a condensed overview of recent federal investigations. I am writing this to honor the little voices whose cries for help were never heard; the young Indigenous children whose lives were stolen from them; the ones who never made it home; the ones who survived but suffered in silence; and for all who were able to share their stories. I invite you to read this with the same intention. Before you begin, take a deep breath, and be present with me in this moment of awareness and healing.

Results of Federal Investigations

United States Investigations

In response to growing calls for accountability and justice, the U.S. Department of the Interior launched the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative (FIBSI) in 2021 to investigate the history and legacy of Indian boarding schools in the United States. Thus far, FIBSI has identified:

• 417 Federal Schools across 37 states and territories, including 21 in Alaska and 7 in Hawaii (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 83; U.S. Dept of Interior [2024] 31).

• 1,025 other institutions including mission schools and privately run facilities (U.S. Dept of Interior [2024] 35-36). These schools played a significant role in the systemic forced assimilation of Native American children and often operated with federal support or collaboration, but were not classified as federal schools due to their private or religious operation and funding structure. 

• 74 marked and unmarked burial sites across 65 schools, discovered through extensive investigations, including the use of ground-penetrating radar (U.S. Dept of Interior [2024] 16).

• 973 American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian children who died while attending these schools (U.S. Dept of Interior [2024] 15).

These are conservative numbers based on documented cases with death records or other historical evidence, and ongoing investigations are likely to reveal higher numbers.

Canadian Investigations

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC), established in 2008, was tasked with documenting the experiences of survivors of Canada’s residential schools and making recommendations to advance reconciliation. It completed its work in 2015, culminating in a final report with 94 Calls to Action. The TRC has recognized:

• 139 residential schools, with ongoing investigations into others (Canada [Vol. 1] 4).

• Over 4,100 confirmed deaths of Indigenous children who attended these schools (Xue Luo 2024).

• Over 2,000 unmarked graves at various school sites, identified using ground-penetrating radar and other investigative techniques. Witness accounts and historical records suggest there could be over 4,000 additional unmarked graves sites across Canada, though further investigation is needed (Xue Luo 2024).

Background

What are Indian Boarding Schools?

Indian boarding schools, or residential schools, were institutions established in the United States and Canada with the primary goal of forced assimilation of Indigenous children into Euro-American or Euro-Canadian culture. These schools were designed to erase Indigenous languages, traditions, and identities, replacing them with European values and lifestyles, often under the guise of converting children to Christianity. The overarching purpose was to dismantle Indigenous cultural practices and integrate Indigenous children into mainstream society by stripping them of their heritage.

"A great general has said that the only good Indian is a dead one, and that high sanction of his destruction has been an enormous factor in promoting Indian massacres. In a sense, I agree with the sentiment, but only in this: that all the Indians there are in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him, and save the man.” - Captain Richard Henry Pratt

"The boarding school experience was harsh and dehumanizing. We were taught to be ashamed of our culture and traditions. It was a constant struggle to hold on to our identity." - Luci Tapahonso

1600s-1800s: Early Assimilation Efforts

The earliest efforts to assimilate Indigenous peoples began as early as the mid-1600s when religious and missionary groups opened institutions, such as the Indian Grammar School of Roxbury, aimed at "civilizing" Indigenous communities. The U.S. federal government’s formal involvement in these efforts began with the passage of the Indian Civilization Act of 1819 which allocated federal funds to such institutions.

1824: The Bureau of Indian Affairs

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), established in 1824 as part of the Department of War, played a central role in this assimilation agenda. Initially created to oversee and manage the federal government’s relationship with Native American tribes, the BIA quickly became the primary instrument through which the U.S. government enforced its assimilation policies. Its responsibilities grew to include the management of treaties, land allotments, and the operation of Indian boarding schools (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 28). The BIA wielded significant power, often using coercive tactics such as withholding rations, annuities, or other promised goods from Indigenous families who resisted sending their children to these schools (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 35).  In many cases, BIA agents–working in concert with local authorities, and even the military–forcibly removed children from their homes under the guise of fulfilling treaty obligations which frequently included provisions requiring the education of Indigenous children  (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 29).

1887: The Dawes Act

The Dawes Act of 1887, also known as the General Allotment Act, further deepened the government’s control over Indigenous lives. The Act aimed to assimilate Indigenous people by breaking up communal lands held by tribes and allotting individual parcels to Native American families. This policy wasn’t just about land redistribution; it was about control. By dismantling communal land ownership and imposing the Euro-American model of individual land ownership, the government sought to sever the deep cultural ties that connected Indigenous people to the land and to each other. The Dawes Act also facilitated the transfer of vast amounts of Indigenous land to non-Indigenous settlers further eroding tribal sovereignty and cultural integrity (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 44).

As Indigenous families were coerced into adopting this new land system, many were also forced to send their children to boarding schools. The government used the Dawes Act as a tool to pressure Indigenous communities, linking land allotments and the "civilizing" mission to the education of their children. The separation of children from their families was a deliberate attempt to break the cultural ties that connected them to their communities and traditions.

“The purpose of the schools was to assimilate us, to erase our identity. Many children never returned home, and those who did were often changed forever. The impact is still felt across generations." - Kevin Gover

Canada

In Canada, the government formally became involved in the operation of Indian boarding schools, known there as Residential Schools, in the late 19th century. The Canadian government passed the Indian Act in 1876 which laid the groundwork for the establishment of Residential Schools. In 1883 the government began funding these schools directly, marking the formal involvement of the Canadian government in the assimilation process (Canada [Vol I] 4). The Department of Indian Affairs (the Canadian counterpart to the BIA) managed these schools, often working closely with religious organizations to run them. Much like in the United States, Indigenous children were removed from their homes through coercion or outright force and placed in schools where they were subjected to severe mistreatment and cultural erasure.

Conditions & Abuses

Upon arrival, the children were forbidden from speaking their languages or practicing their traditions. Their hair, which held deep cultural significance, was often cut as a symbolic act of stripping away their identity. They were given new English names and punished severely for even the slightest infraction (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 7). The schools operated under strict, militaristic discipline with rampant physical abuse, including beatings, whippings, and other forms of corporal punishment (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 8). Many children also suffered from malnutrition and disease due to the poor living conditions (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 56).

"I remember my braids being cut off; washed like we were dirty; talked to us like we were dirty. We were dressed in uniforms. They took everything from us and handed us, like in the military, this bundle with a towel in it; with soap in it; socks; and a uniform. It wasn't what our ancestors wanted for us when they signed the Treaties. That's not what we agreed to. " 
–The Road to Healing South Dakota Participant

Beyond the physical and psychological abuse, beginning as early as the first grade children were exploited by the schools for free labor (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 62). Many boarding schools forced the children to work long hours in fields, workshops, or on school grounds, often under the guise of vocational training (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 59-64).

"The labor of [Indian] children as carried on in Indian boarding schools would, it is believed, constitute a violation of child labor laws in most states."
- Meriam Report, made at the request of the Secretary of the Interior, 1928.

"She didn't call them boarding schools. She called them military school where she had to get up and march every single day. And as soon as she finished marching, she had to go to work. And I said, 'What did you do?' She said, 'Well, we worked in the farm, the farmyards, the animals, the cows, the chickens. We plucked the chickens. We fed them. And we took care of the goats, the cow. Cooked the bread, worked in the kitchen, cleaned the halls, did all the work. And the boys did blacksmith and other things like that.’”
-The Road to Healing Washington Participant

Sexual abuse was another horrifying reality in many of these institutions (U.S. Dept of Interior [2022] 56; U.S. Dept of Interior [2024] 80-82). Vulnerable and isolated, many children became victims of predatory behavior from those who were supposed to care for them. These abuses were often covered up, ignored, or downplayed by authorities, leaving the victims without recourse or justice. The trauma from this abuse has echoed across generations, leaving a legacy of pain and suffering that Indigenous communities continue to grapple with today.

"Unfortunately, Wrangell was a place that attracted pedophiles and many matrons, men and women, perpetrated themselves upon little boys and girls. And what I witnessed in the boys dorm were where matrons were sodomizing boys in their beds or in the bathrooms. We saw girls going home in the middle of the school year pregnant and a lot of these children were like 11 and 12, 13 years old."
 -The Road to Healing Alaska Participant

Legacy

These schools operated for more than a century. In the United States, many Indian boarding schools continued to operate well into the 20th century, with some remaining open until the 1970s and beyond. The last federally operated Indian boarding school in the U.S., the Chilocco Indian Agricultural School in Oklahoma, closed in 1980 (Lomawaima 2010). In Canada, the last Residential School, Gordon Indian Residential School in Saskatchewan, did not close until 1998 (Canada [Vol II] 12).

Despite growing criticism, particularly following the Meriam Report of 1928 in the United States and similar reports in Canada (for example the Hawthorn Report of 1966) which exposed the severe deficiencies and abuses within these schools, the system persisted for decades. These reports highlighted the poor living conditions, inadequate education, and the profound psychological trauma inflicted on Indigenous children. While some reforms were made, the fundamental issues of cultural erasure and forced assimilation remained (“Indian Reorganization Act (1934)”).

The legacy of Indian boarding schools is one of deep intergenerational trauma, loss of language and culture, and ongoing struggles within Indigenous communities. The pain and suffering endured by Indigenous ancestors in these institutions have left lasting scars, but they have also strengthened the resolve to reclaim and preserve Indigenous identity. The history of these schools is not just a reminder of the injustices faced but also a testament to the resilience and enduring strength of Indigenous cultures.

Calls to Action

• Educate Yourself and Others

  • Learn the History: Read the full reports published by the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, and the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition to more fully understand the history and legacy of Indian boarding schools. Enroll in courses or webinars on Indigenous history, culture, and rights.

  • Reflect on Your Role: Examine your own biases and privileges. Reflect on how colonialism continues to impact Indigenous peoples and how you can contribute to reconciliation in your daily life.

  • Share Knowledge: Engage in conversations with friends, family, and your community about the history and impacts of residential schools.

  • Support Indigenous Voices: Follow and support Indigenous authors, artists, and educators. Amplify their work by sharing it on social media or within your circles.

• Support Indigenous Communities

  • Donate to Indigenous Organizations: Support organizations that work on education, legal advocacy, mental health, and cultural preservation for Indigenous peoples, including the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition.

  • Participate in Events: Attend events, workshops, and ceremonies organized by Indigenous communities to learn and show solidarity.

  • Buy Indigenous: Support Indigenous-owned businesses and artists by purchasing their goods and services. Here are a few of my favorites: Lillie Nell Beadworks, Wahsahpeh Beauty, Cynthia J. Bennett, Flipstone Vintage & Thrift.

• Advocate for Change

  • Engage Politically: Advocate for the implementation of the TRC’s 94 Calls to Action in Canada and the U.S. Truth & Healing Commission Bill. Write to your elected local and federal officials and demand action on these issues.

  • Support Indigenous Rights: Stand up for Indigenous rights in your community by challenging racism, supporting land acknowledgments, and promoting policies that respect Indigenous sovereignty.

  • Volunteer: Offer your time and skills to organizations or initiatives that are working towards reconciliation.

By taking these steps, everyone can play a crucial role in acknowledging the past, redressing the harms caused by Indian boarding schools, and advancing the process of reconciliation.

Works Cited & Additional References

Canada, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Canada’s residential schools: the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation commission of Canada. McGill-Queens University Press, 2015.

"Indian Reorganization Act (1934)." University of Alaska Fairbanks: Tribal Management Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, https://www.uaf.edu/tribal/academics/112/unit-2/indianreorganizationact1934.php.

Lomawaima, K Tsianina. "Chilocco Indian Agricultural School." Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, 15 Jan. 2010, https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry?entry=CH042.

United States, Department of the Interior. Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report. Government Printing Office, 2022.

United States, Department of the Interior. Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative Investigative Report, Vol. II. Government Printing Office, 2024.

Xue Luo, Carina. “Missing Children of Indian Residential Schools.” StoryMaps, 24 Feb. 2024, https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/cfe29bee35c54a70b9621349f19a3db2.

Additional References

• National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition (https://boardingschoolhealing.org/)

• Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (http://www.trc.ca/)

• Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center (https://carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/)

• The Canadian Encyclopedia - Residential Schools (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/residential-schools)

• Voices from Pezihutazizi Oyate: Boarding School Histories